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Feature

The French colonial era holds immense influence in the history of Gabon. Despite French traders arriving in Gabon after other Europeans in the 1840s, France solidified its power by appointing traditional authority figures, such as clan leaders, to govern the country. After officially colonizing Gabon during the 1885 scramble for Africa, they began full administration of the nation in 1903.

Gabon became one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa in 1910, and it gained its independence in 1960, becoming one of the independent nations alongside the Central African Republic. The French developed Gabon's economy to be largely dependent on trade with them. Despite the country's abundant natural resources, Gabon primarily exported raw materials while importing manufactured goods rather than developing its own manufacturing industry.

France was particularly interested in Gabon's ample petroleum reserves. They established preferential agreements with Gabonese leaders, ensuring continued unrivalled access to Gabon's petroleum even after the country gained independence. Over time, France also exerted influence over Gabon's political and power sectors. To this day, they continue to benefit from the agriculture and mining sectors of Gabon, which remains one of its significant colonies.

From 1900 to 1960, Chad was a part of the French colonial empire and was integrated into the federation of French colonial holdings in Middle Africa, collectively known as French Equatorial Africa. Chad's experience under French colonial rule was characterized by a lack of efforts to unify the region and a notably slow pace of modernization.

The French primarily viewed Chad as a supplier of raw cotton and a source of unskilled labour, which provided backing to the French Treasury. This economic approach shaped much of the colonial relationship between Chad and France.

During this period, Chad lacked policies aimed at territorial integration and development. The French colonial administration's focus was on economic extraction rather than fostering comprehensive modernization.

Furthermore, in the realm of politics, France played a significant role. After providing substantial support for a successful coup attempt led by Idriss Deby, they continued to back him to prevent his removal from power. This support was maintained through a military presence in the country.

France exercised control over the Republic of Congo as a colony from the 1880s until the nation gained independence in 1960. Throughout the colonial period, France established its dominion over Congo by negotiating treaties with the major local rulers, effectively asserting control over the territory.

Operating as a part of French Equatorial Africa, the economic trajectory of Congo during its half-century of colonial rule revolved around the extraction of natural resources, primarily managed by private companies. These companies played a central role in the economic development of the region under French oversight.

Post-independence, the relationship between France and Congo persisted, albeit with a somewhat restrained demeanour. A key aspect of this relationship was France's significant investment in Congo's flourishing oil sector, a venture facilitated by the French petroleum parastatal Elf-Aquitaine.

In the present day, France continues to hold a prominent position as Congo's primary external partner, contributing substantial economic assistance to the nation. It's noteworthy that this partnership carries echoes of the historical colonial relationship, as Congo still bears the economic ramifications of its colonial past, effectively making payments for its prior status as a colony.

Central Africa Republic, renowned for its abundant natural resources, has earned the title of the wealthiest African country in this regard. Its colonization took place amid the Franco-British competition for supremacy over the White Nile's headwaters during the late 19th century.

Under the designation of Ubang-Shari, the country was organized into a French colony. However, the nature of French colonial rule was marked by exploitative brutality. This oppressive dynamic persisted despite the Central African Republic achieving independence in 1960, with France continuing to exert considerable interference in its governance.

France's influence extended to the military sphere, as coup d'états orchestrated by French-trained military personnel removed presidents of the Central African Republic who did not align with France's preferences. This pattern echoes similar occurrences in other former French colonies.

In the aftermath of gaining legal independence, the Central African Republic remains entangled in a significant level of control asserted by its former colonial power. Consequently, despite its potential wealth derived from its resources, the nation faces a landscape marred by exploitation, turmoil, and disorder.

From 1916 to 1960, French Togoland existed as a League of Nations Mandate under French colonial administration within the context of French West Africa. Until 1934, it was structured as a distinct administrative unit, with a commissioner overseeing affairs and receiving support from a consultative executive council.

During the colonial era, France focused on various developmental efforts in Togo, including the advancement of agriculture. However, these actions were primarily driven by France's own interests.

On August 30, 1956, French Togoland achieved the status of an autonomous republic within the French Union, and by 1960, it secured its independence. Despite gaining sovereignty, Togo maintained its economic ties with France, reflecting an ongoing relationship.

In a pattern similar to other former French colonies, Togo continued to receive aid from France while simultaneously experiencing resource extraction, often framed as a means of recouping investments made in the country.

During the colonial era, Cameroon was divided under the control of France and Britain, creating the territories of French and British Cameroon. Upon gaining independence, notable disparities emerged between France and Cameroon, stemming from differences in their economic structures and export compositions.

After France's inclusion in the European Union in 1999, the CFA franc was linked to the French franc, while a considerable portion of Cameroon's foreign reserves were held within the French Treasury, jointly managed by both French and Cameroonian central bankers.

France's presence in Cameroon is diverse, with more than 100 subsidiaries and 200 businesses owned by French citizens. This extensive economic involvement has allowed France to retain preferential market access within Cameroon.

Despite Cameroon's independence, an agreement forged during its colonial period has led to ongoing financial obligations to France. This arrangement has created a situation where Cameroon continues to make substantial payments to France. Unfortunately, similar to other African countries formerly under French colonial rule, this economic pact is perceived as obstructing Cameroon's potential for economic growth. Often, the benefits are skewed towards Cameroonian leaders who receive bonuses from France, leaving the entire nation to bear the brunt of the losses incurred due to this agreement.

Emerging from the Berlin Conference, Senegal came into the spotlight of French colonization. On August 20, 1960, it withdrew from the Mali Federation and achieved its independence. In the aftermath of being a former French colony, Senegal consented to allow France to maintain a number of military bases within its borders. This cooperation extended to diplomatic relations, fostering a strong partnership that spans cultural and political realms, particularly within the context of West Africa.

Although France eventually closed its military base in Senegal, it established an air force base at the Leopold Sedar Senghor International Airport in Dakar.

In the present day, France stands as the largest foreign investor in Senegal, with investments amounting to over 1.7 billion euros. The relationship is reciprocated, as Senegal ranks as France's third-largest trading partner.

However, similar to many other former African French colonies, Senegal continues to make financial contributions to France as a remnant of its colonial history.

During its colonial rule over Mali, France exerted significant influence across various domains, including the adoption of the French language as the primary language in Mali.

Upon gaining independence, Mali maintained a strong connection with France, with both nations being members of the International Organization of La Francophonie, an entity that promotes the use of the French language and cooperation among its member countries.

France has been attentive to Mali's circumstances post-independence, offering assistance when needed due to their historical ties as a former colonial power.

In 2017, French President Emmanuel Macron made a commitment to combat terrorism in Mali. However, this involvement isn't without its complexities, as France continues to receive payments from Mali as a legacy of its colonial past, and France also hosts a significant Malian diaspora numbering over 120,000.

The relationship faced challenges in 2020 when the new military government in Mali stirred public sentiment against France. This strained the relationship, culminating in the expulsion of the French envoy, Joel Meyer, by the Malian Military junta on January 31, 2022. This move further deteriorated the diplomatic ties between Mali and France.

Having lived under French colonial rule for an extended period, Ivory Coast achieved independence on August 7, 1960. However, characterizing the nation as fully independent is perhaps overly hasty, given that the influence of France continues to persist.

Despite post-independence achievements such as Ivoirians holding positions within state management, the implementation of local elections for presidents, the cessation of French-appointed positions, and the establishment of a constitution, the relationship between the Ivory Coast and France maintains certain dynamics. It's noteworthy that political discourse can often appear to be constrained, with the ascent to the presidency and the longevity of leadership seemingly requiring French endorsement.

France's desire to sustain its influence over its former colonies is evident. This has led to agreements between France and Ivorian leaders that have forged strong economic links between the two countries. These arrangements reflect France's ongoing attempts to maintain its dominance in its former colonies, affecting not only political dynamics but also economic ties.

Under French rule until 1958, Guinea's present borders were established during the colonial era through the decisions of the Berlin Conference. Throughout the colonial period, French control was established through the construction of forts and the occupation of coastal towns.

Initially administered as part of the Senegalese colony, Guinea later became a distinct colony of French Guinea. Upon gaining independence, France rapidly withdrew its presence, often leaving behind the destruction of infrastructure and equipment.

In the aftermath of this withdrawal, Guinea swiftly aligned itself with the Soviet Union and adopted socialist policies. However, over time, a complex relationship has evolved between France and Guinea. Presently, Guinea finds itself in a situation where France expects financial compensation for its historical role as a colonial power.

In 1896, Burkina Faso was invaded and occupied by France, leading to the adoption of the French language as the primary medium for colonial administration and education.

With the establishment of French Upper Volta in 1919, the French administration was guided by economic interests and concerns over potential uprisings. To strengthen their control, the colonial government separated Burkina Faso's present territory from Upper Senegal and Niger.

Upon gaining independence in 1960, Burkina Faso's political landscape remained influenced by the continuation of French power as part of a legacy of colonial policies. This influence extended beyond language and culture to include financial support for development projects and military involvement to combat terrorism.

Formerly known as the Republic of Dahomey from 1960 to 1975, this nation established a commercial arrangement with the French and gradually solidified its control, eventually becoming a colony within French Africa in 1904.

Upon gaining independence on August 1, 1960, Benin faced substantial political instability during the initial 12 years. With an economy primarily rooted in agriculture, Benin is situated among the poorest countries in West Africa. The nation has grappled with substantial annual trade deficits, often alleviated by monetary aid, notably from France.

Despite these economic challenges, Benin maintains its significance as a hub for regional trade. As a former French colony, the country continues to navigate agreements forged in the past with France. These agreements entail financial obligations to France, regardless of Benin's current economic circumstances. This scenario underscores the lingering influence of historical agreements on present-day relationships and the complexities that stem from colonial legacies.

In 2016, Mauritania's exports to France amounted to 147 million euros, positioning France as its second-largest supplier after China. The majority of Mauritania's exports consist of iron ore.

France's engagement in Mauritania is significant, with around 60 of its companies operating in various sectors, including energy, construction, logistics, banking, and other services. Although extractive industries are prominent in Mauritania, France's foreign direct investment primarily extends beyond these sectors.

French development cooperation efforts in Mauritania encompass various priorities such as governance, cultural and scientific collaboration, sustainable development, and human development.

Starting from the 1890s, France established its presence in Equatorial Guinea. It constructed a military fort in Niamey and moved its colony's capital from Zinder to Niamey, a strategic decision intended to facilitate trade with other French colonies along the Niger River. During the colonial period, France orchestrated the cultivation of agricultural products in Niger's peripheral regions and their transportation to global markets.

Upon Niger's attainment of independence in 1960, the influence of French culture remained palpable, as many aspects of the nation's identity, including the French language, endured due to its colonial history.

France's close connection to Niger has persisted even after its independence. Economically, France has derived benefits from its colonial past, continuing to rely on Niger's exports, particularly uranium, which fuels a significant portion of France's extensive power infrastructure.

With France's robust diplomatic presence in Niamey, the capital of Niger, the nation's relationship with France can sometimes give the impression of ongoing colonization. This underscores the intricate nature of post-colonial relationships, wherein the legacy of colonial history continues to shape diplomatic, economic, and cultural interactions between nations.

Prince Charles and Camilla are likely second cousins. Camilla's great-grandmother, Alice Keppel, was the mistress to Edward VII of England, and together they produced a daughter, Sonia. Camilla, the current wife of Prince Charles, is the granddaughter of Sonia. Charles and Camilla are second cousins once removed, so they are the product of a second-cousin marriage.

The royal family of Spain is a good example of inbreeding. The current King's parents, Juan Carlos and Sophia of Greece, both have issues with inbreeding. On Juan Carlos's side, we see the remnants of hemophilia passed down due to the intermarriage chronicled by Queen Victoria. Juan Carlos's uncles, Alfonso and Gonzalo, both died from a lack of blood clotting believed to have been caused by their mild inbreeding.

The King's mother, Sophia, arguably has one of the worst cases of modern-day inbreeding. Two of her great-grandparents were brother and sister, and what's even worse is the fact that her great-grandparents are also her great-great-grandparents because the German royal family intermarried.

Prince Philip, late Queen Elizabeth's husband, is also a product of royal inbreeding. Prince Philip, like the Queen, is the unfortunate product of intermarriage that wrapped European royal marriages in the 19th century.

To delve into the specifics, Prince Philip's maternal great-grandparents were Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. They were first cousins, sharing the same set of grandparents. This close familial relationship highlights the practice of intermarriage within the Victorian era and its impact on subsequent generations.

Additionally, both of Prince Philip's great-grandfathers played roles in perpetuating the pattern of inbreeding. His maternal great-grandfather, King Christian IX of Denmark, was a prominent figure in European royal circles. King Christian's daughter, Princess Alexandra of Denmark, married Queen Victoria's son, Edward VII, further consolidating the interconnections between royal families.

Prince Philip's other great-grandfather was Grand Duke Louis IV of Hesse and by Rhine. He married Queen Victoria's second daughter, Princess Alice, making them Prince Philip's maternal great-grandparents. What makes this connection particularly notable is that Grand Duke Louis IV was the uncle of Prince Philip's paternal great-grandfather, Grand Duke Ludwig III of Hesse and by Rhine. The marriage of Prince Philip's great-grandparents, Princess Alice and Grand Duke Louis IV, effectively made their children both first cousins and second cousins.

The King and Queen of Greece, Constantine II and Anne-Marie of Denmark, are cousins twice over, just like Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip. They are both descendants of Queen Victoria and King Christian, the 9th of Denmark. However, unlike the Queen and Prince of England, the King and Queen of Greece are triply related. They share the exact same consanguinity coefficient, which means the exact same amount of inbreeding.

Empress Napoleon, also known as Mary Louise of Austria, was part of an incredibly inbred family. When Napoleon struggled to provide an heir with his first wife, Josephine, he forced Josephine's daughter to marry his brother. This meant that his stepson was also his brother. However, the most inbred member of the Napoleonic family was Napoleon's second wife, Empress Napoleon. Born as Maria Ludovica Leopoldina Franziska Therese Josepha Lucia, Mary Louise hailed from the House of Habsburg, a family known for its extensive history of intermarriage and consanguinity. In the case of Mary Louise, her parents were double first cousins, intensifying the level of shared ancestry within her immediate family.

Alfonso, the Prince of Spain, was the heir to the Spanish throne in the 1920s, during a highly unstable time in Spanish politics. Like Edward VIII of England, Alfonso renounced his rights to the Spanish throne to marry a commoner. Unfortunately, he passed away in 1938 due to a car accident. His hemophilia, a condition that prevents blood clotting, caused him to bleed to death. Inbreeding within the Spanish royal family played a role in the occurrence of recessive genes inherited by Alfonso. As the great-grandchild of Queen Victoria, who carried hemophilia in her family, Alfonso faced increased risk. The Spanish royal family has a history of marrying close relatives, as mentioned before. Ultimately, Alfonso suffered due to the inbreeding of his ancestors and Queen Victoria's ambition to solidify her reputation as the grandmother of Europe.

Archduchess Gizella of Austria, daughter of Emperor Franz Joseph and Empress Elizabeth, is a lesser-known figure in history. She was the neglected daughter of her parents, who were first cousins. The intense strain caused by their inbreeding affected their children's health. For example, their eldest daughter Sophie died in infancy, likely due to the effects of inbreeding. Another child, Rudolf, suffered from genetic abnormalities and chronic depression, eventually taking his own life. Recent studies have shown a common occurrence of depression within the Habsburg dynasty, suggesting a genetic link. Gizella herself became a figurehead for the consequences of Habsburg inbreeding. She was forced to marry her own cousin at the request of her mother, resulting in physical and emotional suffering for her children. Among her four children, all of them shared eight great-grandparents, who, unfortunately, were not genetically diverse. This situation further compounded the issues caused by inbreeding.

Ludwig II, the Mad King of Bavaria, was a beloved cousin of Empress Elizabeth of Austria. He had a strong appreciation for the arts and commissioned the magnificent Neuschwanstein Castle in the 1800s. However, Ludwig suffered from intense feelings of depression, and his inbreeding is believed to be a significant contributing factor to his mental health struggles. Despite his artistic achievements, Ludwig was eventually dethroned, with his counselors claiming he was insane. Modern studies suggest that Ludwig's depression stemmed from intense guilt over his homosexuality. Nevertheless, inbreeding likely played a role in the intensity of his depression. Interestingly, Ludwig's successor was even more mentally unstable than he was.

Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii, the last reigning monarch of Hawaii, also had a high degree of inbreeding in her ancestry. It is important to note that there is an unfortunate stereotype about Hawaii having rampant inbreeding, which was not necessarily true in the modern period. However, Liliuokalani's family had close blood relationships. Her grandfather, High Chief Kamehameha, was her great-grandfather twice over because both of her grandfathers were brothers.

King Harald V of Norway holds the distinction of being one of the most inbred royals currently alive. His parents were first cousins, which significantly limited the number of unique great-grandparents he had. While most people have eight unique great-grandparents, Harald only has six. His grandmother and grandfather were not only siblings but also first cousins to each other. Further back in his ancestry, his great-grandmother, who appears twice, was the niece of his great-grandfather. This extensive inbreeding within Harald's lineage makes him the most inbred royal of the present time.

The Korean War began in 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea. The Soviet Union and China supported North Korea, while the United States and its allies supported South Korea. The war ended with an armistice in 1953.

Before the war, Korea was ruled by Japan for 35 years until Japan surrendered in 1945. After that, the United States and the Soviet Union divided Korea into two parts, with each country controlling one part. This division led to the creation of two separate governments in 1948: North Korea led by Kim Il Sung, and South Korea, led by Syngman Rhee. Both sides claimed to be the rightful government of all of Korea and disagreed on the border.

Attempts to negotiate reunification failed, and on June 25th, 1950, North Korean forces crossed the border into South Korea. The United Nations Security Council called it an invasion and authorized the formation of a U.N. force to defend South Korea. The majority of the U.N. forces were led by the United States.

The United States’ merciless bombing campaign against North Korea, which lasted from 1950 to 1953, was a pivotal moment in the conflict that ultimately made it near impossible to achieve a peaceful resolution with the North Korean people. This devastating military operation has been described by some historians as even more destructive than the damage inflicted upon Germany and Japan during World War II.

The U.S. dropped around 635,000 tons of bombs on North Korea, including roughly 32,000 tons of napalm - a highly flammable incendiary weapon used to burn down structures and cause severe injuries.

The intense bombing led to significant civilian casualties and widespread destruction of infrastructure like homes, schools, hospitals, factories, and roads. It’s estimated that up to one-third of the population in urban areas were killed or injured as a result.

In response to increasing Chinese intervention in support of North Korean forces in late 1950s and early ‘51s’, General Douglas MacArthur called for an intensified air campaign which included carpet bombing - dropping large numbers of bombs over a wide area without specific target selection - aiming at wholesale destruction of North Korean towns and cities. This generated considerable controversy due to the massive devastation it caused.

The coup d’état on August 19, 1953, in Iran marked a significant turning point in the country’s political history. This event, often referred to as Operation Ajax in the United States and Operation Boot in the United Kingdom, resulted in the ousting of Iran’s democratically elected Prime Minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh.

In the early 1950s, Prime Minister Mosaddegh had become a symbol of Iranian nationalism and self-determination, primarily due to his campaign for the nationalization of the Iranian oil industry, which had been controlled by foreign companies, mainly the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), now known as BP.

Mosaddegh’s move towards nationalization was seen as a direct threat to Western interests, particularly those of the United Kingdom. The British government vehemently opposed this action and sought assistance from the United States, arguing that Iran was falling under communist influence and was at risk of aligning with the Soviet Union.

Despite initial hesitation, the newly elected President Eisenhower and his administration were persuaded by Cold War fears, thus agreeing to support a secret plan coordinated by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Britain’s Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) to overthrow Mosaddegh.

The operation involved a complex mix of political subversion, propaganda, and orchestration of street protests. On August 19, 1953, military officers loyal to the Shah arrested Mosaddegh. With the Prime Minister out of the way, the Shah, who had fled the country briefly during the coup, returned to power.

Although the coup was initially successful in achieving its immediate objective - reinstating the Shah’s power and control - it had far-reaching consequences. The Shah’s increasingly authoritarian rule led to widespread discontent and ultimately laid the groundwork for the Islamic Revolution of 1979, which overthrew the monarchy and established an hardline Islamic Republic in Iran.

The U.S. and U.K.’s involvement in the coup was officially acknowledged decades later. This intervention has since been widely criticized and is seen as a significant factor contributing to anti-Western sentiment in Iran and broader Middle East.

The 1954 coup in Guatemala, known as Golpe de Estado en Guatemala de 1954, was orchestrated by the CIA under the covert operation PBSuccess. It overthrew the democratically elected President Jacobo Árbenz and marked the end of the Guatemalan Revolution of 1944-1954. The coup installed Carlos Castillo Armas as the leader of a military dictatorship, initiating a series of U.S.-backed authoritarian rulers in Guatemala.

The Guatemalan Revolution began in 1944 after a popular uprising removed the military dictatorship of Jorge Ubico. Juan José Arévalo was elected as the first president in Guatemala's democratic election. Arévalo implemented reforms such as a minimum wage and expanded suffrage, transforming Guatemala into a democracy. Árbenz succeeded Arévalo in 1951 and implemented land reforms that redistributed property to landless peasants.

The United Fruit Company (an American multinational corporation), whose profits were affected by the end of exploitative labor practices in Guatemala, conducted a persuasive lobbying campaign to convince the U.S. to overthrow the Guatemalan government. President Harry Truman authorized Operation PBFortune in 1952 to remove Árbenz, which served as a precursor to PBSuccess.

The next U.S. president  Dwight D. Eisenhower pledged a stronger stance against communism. Eisenhower's advisers, John Foster Dulles and Allen Dulles, had connections to the UFC, further motivating them to take action against the Guatemalan government. The U.S. government also exaggerated the extent of communist influence within Árbenz's administration. In August 1953, Eisenhower authorized the CIA to execute Operation PBSuccess. The CIA provided arms, funding, and training to a force of 480 men led by Carlos Castillo Armas.

The coup was preceded by U.S. efforts to isolate and criticize Guatemala on the international stage. Castillo Armas' forces invaded Guatemala on June 18th, 1954, while engaging in intense psychological warfare. They utilized a radio station to broadcast anti-government propaganda, manipulated military events to favor the rebellion, conducted air bombings of Guatemala City, and established a naval blockade. Although the invasion force faced military setbacks, the psychological warfare and the fear of a U.S. invasion intimidated the Guatemalan army, leading them to refuse to fight. Árbenz attempted to arm civilians to resist the invasion but eventually resigned on June 27th. Ten days later, Castillo Armas assumed the presidency following negotiations in San Salvador.

The coup was widely condemned internationally. It was seen as a major blow to democracy in Guatemala and further fueled anti-U.S. sentiment in Latin America. In an attempt to justify the coup, the CIA launched Operation PBHistory to find evidence of Soviet influence in Guatemala during Árbenz's tenure, but the operation proved unsuccessful. Castillo Armas quickly consolidated dictatorial powers, banned opposition parties, imprisoned and tortured political opponents, and reversed the social reforms of the revolution. Guatemala subsequently experienced nearly four decades of civil war as leftist guerrillas fought against a series of U.S.-backed authoritarian regimes marked by severe human rights abuses, including the genocide of the Maya people.

In 1958, President Eisenhower's order to the CIA to overthrow the Sukarno government marked a covert operation aimed at removing Sukarno from power. However, the plans were quickly exposed by Soviet intelligence, leading to widespread knowledge of the "American Plot to Overthrow Sukarno."

The CIA's involvement in the coup became apparent when an American pilot was shot down, which communist activists used as evidence of Western intervention in Indonesian affairs. This revelation intensified opposition to the coup and provided a rallying point for communist supporters. The failed coup served to strengthen Sukarno's position and emboldened his pro-communist leanings.

The CIA's strategy involved establishing operational bases in the Philippines and employing Filipino CIA paramilitary officers to make contact with Indonesian military forces. They also provided weapons and financial support to rebel military forces and used radio stations to broadcast anti-Sukarno messages as part of psychological warfare. However, the CIA underestimated the strength of the Indonesian Army and failed to recognize that many top commanders were staunchly anti-communist, resulting in clashes between American-aligned forces.

The Indonesian government, led by Sukarno, fiercely opposed the rebels, and loyal military forces were mobilized to suppress the rebellion. They launched attacks on rebel strongholds, including airstrikes and a naval blockade. Eventually, the rebel forces were defeated, and the coup came to a transparent and complete failure. This failure marked a significant setback for the CIA, highlighting their inability to compete with Soviet covert intelligence and the repercussions of underestimating the local dynamics and anti-communist sentiment within the Indonesian Army.

The aftermath of the failed coup further solidified Sukarno's position, and the United Nations supported the formation of Malaysia in Indonesia's northernmost territory. Sukarno's alignment with communist interests became more pronounced, setting the stage for further political developments and tensions in the years to come.

When Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba in 1959 after the left-wing revolution, the new regime distanced itself from the United States and aligned closely with the Soviet Union. This raised concerns in the U.S. due to Cuba's proximity and its significance in the Cold War. In response, President Eisenhower ordered the CIA to develop a plan to overthrow Castro's government. The CIA trained and funded a group of exiled Cuban counter-revolutionaries, known as Brigade 2506, as part of this operation.

When President John F. Kennedy took office, he approved the CIA's plan, and the invasion of Cuba was set in motion. However, the attack, known as the Bay of Pigs invasion, quickly encountered setbacks. The Cuban armed forces, under Castro's command, swiftly defeated the invading forces within two days. The failed invasion bolstered Castro's administration, which openly embraced socialism and strengthened its ties with the Soviet Union. The Kennedy administration conducted an assessment of the Bay of Pigs defeat and subsequently initiated a new covert program, Operation Mongoose, in an attempt to remove the Castro regime from power.

Operation Mongoose, overseen by the CIA and Department of Defense, involved a wide range of plans, including political, psychological, military, sabotage, and intelligence operations. It even considered assassination attempts on political leaders, including Castro. However, despite some actions being deployed, Operation Mongoose failed to achieve its primary objectives. Meanwhile, the U.S. became increasingly concerned about Soviet arms shipments to Cuba, with the possibility of nuclear warheads being introduced. This led to the suspension of Operation Mongoose in October 1962 as the Cuban Missile Crisis unfolded, marking one of the most dangerous moments of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union.

The Vietnam War (1955-1975) was a conflict fought between the communist government of North Vietnam, supported by the Soviet Union, China and other communist allies, and the government of South Vietnam, which was backed by the United States and other anti-communist allies. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy conflict. It began as an insurgency by communist forces in Vietnam against French colonial rule in the mid-20th century and escalated into a full-fledged war after the French withdrawal from Indochina in 1954.

The Gulf of Tonkin incident played a crucial role in escalating American involvement in the Vietnam War. In August 1964, two alleged attacks on US Navy destroyers by North Vietnamese naval vessels occurred in the Gulf of Tonkin. These incidents were said to have happened on August 2 and August 4. However, evidence later emerged suggesting that the second attack might not have taken place at all.

The reported attacks were used by President Lyndon B. Johnson as justification for seeking congressional approval to escalate American military involvement in Vietnam. On August 7, just days after the alleged incidents, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave Johnson broad powers to use military force in Southeast Asia without a formal declaration of war.

As American casualties mounted and news about atrocities committed during the conflict spread to Western media outlets, public support for U.S involvement waned significantly.

The war officially ended on April 30th, 1975, when North Vietnamese troops captured Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City), the capital of South Vietnam. The fall of Saigon marked a significant defeat for the United States in one of the longest conflicts in its history. The American army had to face a similar shameful withdrawal in Afghanistan years later.

The period from 1960 to 1965 saw political turmoil and conflict in the Congo, following its independence from Belgium. The crisis was a proxy conflict during the Cold War, with the Soviet Union and the United States supporting opposing factions in a series of civil wars. The crisis is estimated to have claimed around 100,000 lives.

When Congo gained independence from Belgium on June 30, 1960, Patrice Lumumba became its first Prime Minister. His charisma instilled hope for the future among his people. His anti-colonial stance and goal of a united Congo made Belgian authorities and Western powers, like the US, uneasy.

Even after Congo's independence, Belgium maintained significant economic interests in the country. In an effort to maintain control over their investments and weaken Lumumba's government, Belgian officials backed separatist movements in regions like Katanga, known for their abundant mineral deposits.

The Cold War context led to US concerns that Lumumba's anti-Western rhetoric might cause him to align with Soviet interests. Consequently, President Eisenhower gave the CIA the go-ahead to conduct covert operations against Lumumba's government.

The involvement of the Soviet Union resulted in a split in the Congolese government and a stalemate between Lumumba and President Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Mobutu Sese Seko, who commanded the army, staged a coup, expelled the Soviet advisors, and established a new government under his control. Lumumba was taken into custody and then executed in 1961. The involvement of Belgian officers in connection to all these has been well documented, while the CIA’s role remains a subject of speculation due to insufficient evidence to conclusively prove their direct participation in the murder.

Belgium and the US played crucial roles in destabilizing Congo's independent government, led by Patrice Lumumba, ultimately culminating in his assassination.

In March 1964, a coup took place in Brazil that resulted in the overthrow of President João Goulart by the Brazilian Armed Forces. The coup occurred from March 31st to April 1st and was supported by the speaker of the Brazilian Congress, who declared the presidency vacant. Goulart, a member of the Brazilian Labour Party, had been democratically elected as vice president. The presidency was originally won by Jânio Quadros, a conservative backed by the National Democratic Union, but he resigned in 1961. According to the Brazilian Constitution, Goulart should have automatically assumed the presidency, but right-wing militants accused him of being a communist and tried to prevent him from taking office. Eventually, a compromise was reached, and the parliamentary system replaced the presidential system, with Goulart continuing as head of state and Tancredo Neves becoming the prime minister.

However, in 1963, a referendum reinstated the presidential system, and Goulart assumed full powers. His presidency faced numerous challenges, including political problems and Cold War disputes, which contributed to its destabilization. Goulart's proposed Basic Reforms Plan aimed to redistribute the profits of large companies, but it was viewed as a "socialist threat" by right-wing factions and the military. Large-scale demonstrations against the government, known as the Marches of the Family with God for Freedom, were organized in opposition to Goulart's policies.

The coup in Brazil brought about a military regime aligned with the interests of the United States government. This military dictatorship lasted for 21 years until 1985, when Tancredo Neves, who had played a role in the negotiations during the coup, was indirectly elected as the first civilian president since the 1960 elections.

The Dominican Civil War, also known as the April Revolution, occurred from April 24th to September 3rd, 1965, in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. It began when supporters of ousted President Juan Bosch, both civilian and military, removed President Donald Reid Cabral, who had come to power through a military installation. This second coup prompted General Elías Wessin y Wessin to mobilize loyalist military forces in support of President Reid, leading to an armed conflict against the rebels known as the "constitutionalists." The rebels distributed weapons to civilian sympathizers.

Allegations of communist support for the rebels, including foreign involvement, led to the intervention of the United States in the conflict under the codename Operation Power Pack. Eventually, the conflict resulted in an occupation of the Dominican Republic by the Inter-American Peace Force, representing the Organization of American States. Elections were held in 1966, and Joaquín Balaguer was elected as the new president. Later that year, foreign troops withdrew from the country.

As a result of Operation Power Pack, communism did not take hold in the Dominican Republic. However, critics argue that it set a precedent for further U.S. interventions in Latin America.

The 1976 Argentine coup d'état, which ousted President Isabel Perón on March 24th, 1976, had elements of right-wing influence but did not strictly adhere to a specific ideology. While it emphasized the restoration of order and security, it was not a traditional right-wing coup. Following the coup, a military junta was established, led by Lieutenant General Jorge Rafael Videla, Admiral Emilio Eduardo Massera, and Brigadier-General Orlando Ramón Agosti. The junta's political process was officially named the "National Reorganization Process," and although its original members changed, it remained in power until the restoration of democratic governance on December 10th, 1983.

The coup had been planned since October 1975, and the Peron government became aware of the preparations two months before its execution. Henry Kissinger, a U.S. official, held multiple meetings with Argentine Armed Forces leaders after the coup, urging them to swiftly eliminate their opponents before concerns about human rights abuses grew in the United States.

Due to the systematic persecution of a social minority during this period, the events have been classified as a genocidal process. This classification has been established through the trials of those responsible for crimes against humanity.

The United States played a significant role in the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), though it was not officially involved as a combatant. The United States supported Iraq under Saddam Hussein’s regime, believing that it would serve as a buffer against Iran’s expanding influence and revolutionary ideology. The US provided logistics support, military intelligence, financial assistance, and weapons and assistance in the development of chemical weapons (weapons of mass destruction/WMDs) to Iraq.

In 1983, the US launched Operation Staunch to restrict Iran’s ability to obtain advanced weaponry from abroad. This operation consisted of diplomatic efforts aimed at convincing other countries not to sell arms or provide military aid to Iran.

In August 2013, Foreign Policy Magazine published an article based on CIA documents and interviews with former intelligence officials. The article suggested that the U.S. was aware of Iraq’s use of chemical weapons against Iranian forces and civilians but continued to provide assistance due to strategic interests in the region.

These revelations have sparked debates about the extent of U.S. involvement and responsibility for Iraq’s actions at that time, as well as a broader discussion about international relations and foreign policy decision-making.

The Nicaraguan Revolution, also known as the Sandinista Revolution, occurred from the 1960s to the 1990s and encompassed various phases. It began with the opposition to the Somoza dictatorship in the 1960s and 1970s. The Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) led a campaign to oust the dictatorship, which succeeded in 1978-79. Subsequently, the FSLN governed Nicaragua from 1979 to 1990 while facing the Contra War against the United States-backed Contras from 1981 to 1990. The revolution turned Nicaragua into a prominent battleground of the Cold War, drawing significant international attention.

The initial overthrow of the Somoza regime was a tumultuous affair, and the Contra War in the 1980s resulted in the loss of many Nicaraguan lives and sparked intense international debate. The FSLN and Contras, representing left-wing and right-wing factions, respectively, received substantial aid from the Soviet Union and the United States due to the country's political instability, struggling economy, and diminishing government influence during the 1980s.

In December 1989, the United States carried out an invasion of Panama called Operation Just Cause with the aim of removing General Manuel Noriega, who had effectively ruled Panama and was wanted by U.S. authorities for drug trafficking and racketeering. The invasion lasted for several weeks and led to Noriega's surrender. As a result, the Panamanian Defense Forces were disbanded, and Guillermo Endara, the opposition candidate, assumed the presidency. Noriega, who was previously an ally of the United States, fell out of favor due to his involvement in criminal activities. Despite failed negotiations for his resignation and his annulment of the Panamanian election results, tensions escalated after the killing of a U.S. Marine, prompting President George H. W. Bush to authorize the invasion. The Panamanian forces were swiftly overwhelmed, leading Noriega to seek refuge in a diplomatic mission before ultimately surrendering. He was later extradited to the U.S., where he was convicted and sentenced to prison. The invasion resulted in casualties on both sides and drew criticism from international bodies for violating international law.

Madeleine Albright served as the U.S. Secretary of State from 1997 to 2001, during President Bill Clinton’s administration. She was a key figure in the NATO intervention in Serbia in 1999. As Secretary of State, she argued that NATO had a moral obligation to intervene to stop the Serbian government's campaign of ethnic cleansing against Kosovar Albanians. The bombing campaign lasted for 78 days and ultimately led to the withdrawal of Serbian forces from Kosovo.

Critics of the NATO intervention, which did not have U.N. Security Council approval, have made allegations of war crimes, mainly:

* Civilian casualties: NATO bombings resulted in civilian casualties. The exact number is disputed and varies from around 500 to over 2,000 depending on the source.

* Use of depleted uranium: NATO’s use of depleted uranium in its ammunition has been associated with health risks, including cancer and birth defects.

* Bombing of non-military targets: Several buildings not involved in military activities were hit, including the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, in which three Chinese journalists were killed.

Background

Zbigniew Brzezinski, National Security Advisor under President Carter from 1977 to 1981, played a central role in American foreign policy towards Afghanistan during the Soviet invasion. CIA covertly supported Islamic fighters, or Mujahideen, who were opposing the Soviet invasion. Here is a brief overview of the key events:

* 1979: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan - The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to prop up a pro-Soviet government facing a rebellion. This sparked a nine-year conflict.

* Operation Cyclone - This was the code name for the CIA program to arm and finance the Mujahideen in Afghanistan. The operation lasted from 1979 to 1989.

* Zbigniew Brzezinski’s Role - As National Security Advisor, Brzezinski was a leading architect of the strategy to support the Mujahideen. He saw the conflict as an opportunity to sap the resources of the Soviet Union and possibly induce a Soviet version of Vietnam, thus weakening the USSR significantly.

* Impact and Unintended Consequences - The plan was successful in the sense that the Soviet Union was bogged down in Afghanistan for a decade and suffered a major blow to its global prestige. However, the unintended consequence was that the Mujahideen, with their new-found power, would later morph into various factions, including Taliban and al-Qaeda.

Osama bin laden as a CIA asset >

Unintended consequence

Following the September 11th attacks (Read: Letter to the American People by Osama bin Laden), the U.S. demanded the extradition of then al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden from the the Taliban government in Afghanistan, but the Taliban refused to comply without America accepting their offer.

The U.S. launched Operation Enduring Freedom, leading to the expulsion of the Taliban from major cities with the assistance of the Northern Alliance. However, the Taliban regrouped and initiated an insurgency against the Afghan government and coalition forces.

The conflict involved guerrilla warfare, suicide attacks, and reprisals. Efforts to eliminate the Taliban militarily proved challenging, and the coalition turned to diplomacy. The U.S.-Taliban deal in 2020 outlined the withdrawal of U.S. troops, which coincided with the Taliban's broad offensive in 2021.

The Taliban successfully regained control, culminating in the fall of Kabul and the departure of the last American troops in shameful manner similar to Vietnam withdrawal. The war resulted in a significant loss of life and displacement of Afghan civilians. There were 2,402 United States military deaths and 20,713 American servicemembers were wounded in action during the war. This war became the longest in U.S. military history, surpassing the duration of the Vietnam War.

The 2003 invasion of Iraq, known as Operation Iraqi Freedom, was a military campaign led by the United States and its allies with the goal of removing Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, disarming Iraq of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), ending support for terrorism, and to create a nation in Arab world that's friendly to Israel. It began on March 19th, 2003, and lasted over a month.

The invasion involved a coalition force of about 160,000 troops, mainly American soldiers. They swiftly overpowered Iraqi forces, capturing Baghdad on April 9th, 2003, after the Battle of Baghdad. President George W. Bush declared the end of major combat operations on May 1st, 2003.

The invasion was based on concerns about Iraq's alleged possession of WMDs and its potential threat to global peace, although no evidence of WMDs was found. The war had support from some countries but faced opposition from others, including long-standing U.S. allies like France, Germany, and New Zealand. Massive protests against the war occurred worldwide, involving millions of people.

During the invasion, coalition forces faced limited resistance and successfully occupied Iraq, leading to the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's regime. The subsequent period involved military occupation and the establishment of transitional governments. The U.S. military presence in Iraq continued until its withdrawal in 2011.

Aftermath

The removal of Saddam Hussein in 2003 created a power vacuum in Iraq, which has been exploited smartly by Iran, America's greatest enemy in the Arab world. Here’s how it happened:

Political Vacuum: Saddam Hussein’s regime was Sunni, although Iraq has a majority Shia population. His removal left a gap in the political structure, which was filled by the Shia majority. Iran, being a predominantly Shia country, found common ground with the new Iraqi leadership.

Influence through Militias: Iran extended its influence in Iraq through various Shia militias. Many of these militias were trained and funded by Iran, enabling Iran to exert considerable influence over Iraq’s security situation.

Economic Ties: Post-Saddam Iraq saw an increase in trade with Iran, further tying the two countries together. Iran became one of Iraq’s largest trading partners, enhancing its influence over the Iraqi economy.

Cultural and Religious Ties: Iran has capitalized on the shared Shia faith to extend its influence in Iraq. The two countries share several religious sites and festivals, and Iran has used these to strengthen its cultural ties with Iraq.

Political Influence: Iran has been able to exert direct and indirect influence over Iraq’s political affairs. It has supported various Shia political parties and politicians, further consolidating its influence in Iraq.

The net result of these factors is that Iran has been able to extend its sphere of influence into Iraq in the post-Saddam era.

The US involvement in Libya, primarily during the 2011 civil war, was significant and played a role in the country’s current anarchical state. Here’s a general timeline of the events:

* 1969-2011: Prior to the civil war, Libya had one of the highest GDPs per capita in Africa, largely due to its large oil reserves. After overthrowing King Idris in 1969, Gaddafi implemented policies aimed at eliminating poverty in Libya. The oil revenue was used to fund large-scale infrastructure projects, leading to a significant increase in the standard of living. Gaddafi introduced free healthcare and education, and subsidized housing was made available to all citizens.

He had proposed a plan to create a single African currency made from gold, known as the Gold Dinar. The idea was that this currency would be used to buy and sell oil and other resources instead of the U.S. or other foreign currencies.

* February 2011: Protests against Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi’s regime began, inspired by the Arab Spring movements in neighboring countries. The protests quickly escalated into a full-blown civil war funded by entities aiming to exploit Libya’s oil resources.

* March 2011: The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1973, authorizing a no-fly zone over Libya. The US, along with NATO allies and some Arab nations, began a military intervention under this authorization.

* April 2011: The US transitioned primary command and control to NATO. However, the US continued to play a significant role in the NATO mission, providing a large portion of the intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities, as well as a significant portion of the in-air refueling capabilities.

* October 2011: Gaddafi was captured and killed by rebel forces. The National Transitional Council, composed of anti-Gaddafi forces, declared Libya liberated.

* 2012 and onwards: The following years saw Libya plagued by instability and violence. The country has been split among various armed groups, many of whom have turned against each other. The central government has struggled to exert control, and in some parts of the country, local militias have more power.

Aftermath

After the collapse of Muammar Gadhafi’s regime in 2011, Libya descended into chaos, with various factions vying for control. This created a power vacuum and lawlessness that allowed human trafficking and smuggling networks to thrive. Gaddafi had kept slavery illegal in Libya. Many migrants from other parts of Africa use Libya as a transit point to reach Europe. However, the tightening of border controls by European countries has left many migrants stranded in Libya. These migrants, desperate and without legal protections, are vulnerable to being exploited and sold into slavery. The ongoing economic crisis and instability in Libya have made human trafficking a profitable business. Many Libyans are struggling to make ends meet, and the exploitation of vulnerable migrants has become one way for people to earn money.

This is how Barack Obama brought back slave trade to Africa.

The Syrian civil war is an ongoing conflict in Syria that started in 2011 during the Arab Spring protests. It began as peaceful demonstrations against the Syrian government but escalated into an armed conflict after a violent crackdown. The war involves various factions, including the Syrian Arab Republic led by President Bashar al-Assad, opposition groups like the Syrian Interim Government and the Syrian Salvation Government, the autonomous region of Rojava represented by the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), and extremist groups such as Al-Nusra Front and the Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL) which are al-Qaeda cut outs.

Control over Syrian oil fields has been a factor in the conflict. Various factions, including ISIS at its peak, have sought to control oil fields as a way of generating revenue. Moreover, Israel has an interest in dismantling Syria in order to maintain its grip on oil-rich Golan Heights; Syrian territory occupied by Israel since the 1967.

Several foreign countries, including Iran, Israel, Russia, Turkey, and the United States, have become involved in the conflict by supporting different factions. Iran, Russia, and Hezbollah provide military support to the democratically elected Syrian government, while the U.S - led coalition covertly support rebel groups and conducts airstrikes against government and pro-government forces. Turkey has fought against the SDF, ISIS, and the Syrian government, and also supports the opposition rebel groups.

Here are some major ways the US has supported rebel groups in Syria:

Financial Support: The US has provided financial assistance to certain rebel groups. This funding has been used to purchase weapons, equipment, and other supplies necessary for their resistance against the Syrian regime.

Military Aid: The US has provided military aid to certain rebel groups, which includes weapons, training, and tactical advice. The CIA ran a program called ‘Timber Sycamore’ from 2013 to 2017 that trained and armed rebel groups.

Political Support: The US has also offered political support to the Syrian opposition. This includes advocating for their interests in international forums, such as the United Nations, and applying diplomatic pressure on the Syrian government and its allies.

Sanctions: The US has imposed sanctions on the Syrian regime and its supporters, aiming to weaken them and indirectly support the opposition.

The war has caused a significant number of casualties, with estimates ranging from 470,000 to 610,000 deaths. It has also resulted in a major refugee crisis, with millions of people fleeing to neighboring countries and beyond. Various peace initiatives have been attempted, but fighting has persisted. As of 2023, active combat between the Syrian government and rebel groups has mostly diminished, although sporadic clashes continue in Northwestern Syria. ISIS has been largely defeated, with only isolated pockets of resistance remaining in remote areas.

Ukraine is a resource-rich country in Eastern Europe that neighbors Russia. It is an important place in Russian history and Orthodox Christianity. However, it also has a history of supporting extremist ideologie like Nazism and Zionism to undermine historical Russian influence over the country. The western Polish and Ukrainian populations are aligned with the American-led western block, while Eastern Ukrainians are overwhelmingly pro-Russian and consider themselves ethnic Russian. Certain Western Polish and Ukrainian families, such as the Nulands, Brzezinskis, and Blinkens, have migrated to the US, continuing their ancestral pursuit of dismantling the former Soviet Union and modern-day Russia. Former colonial powers in the world like Britain and France, which had historical rivalries with Russia, as well as global oligarchs and companies like BlackRock, which wield vast lobbying power in American and Western politics have an interest in dismantling the Russian sphere of influence in resource-rich Eurasian territories.

The Revolution of Dignity, also known as the Maidan Revolution or the Ukrainian Revolution, took place in Ukraine in February 2014. It resulted in the ousting of the democratically-elected President, Viktor Yanukovych, who maintained a balanced approach with the EU and Russia. The protesters also demanded a return to the 2004 Constitution that could pave the way for Ukraine to apply for EU and NATO membership. The revolution also led Russia to annex Crimea in 2014 and sparked the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2022.

Victoria Nuland, a senior U.S. State Department official, and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) have been implicated by some critics in what they see as an orchestration of the Maidan Revolution in Ukraine.

* Victoria Nuland’s role:

Nuland was Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs during the events of the Maidan Revolution. She made several trips to Ukraine during the crisis, met with opposition leaders, and expressed strong support for their cause.

Nuland’s infamous leaked phone call with Geoffrey Pyatt, the U.S. Ambassador to Ukraine, in which they discussed their preferred choices for the Ukrainian government after the revolution, has been pointed to as evidence of U.S. interference.

Nuland’s public distribution of food to protesters on Maidan Square was seen by some as a symbolic gesture of support for the opposition.

* The CIA’s alleged involvement:

Critics allege that the CIA had an active role in organizing and supporting the protests. Some argue that the CIA was involved in training and supporting protest groups, providing tactical advice, and possibly supplying non-lethal equipment. The agency is known for its history of involvement in political upheavals worldwide, which adds to these suspicions.

These entities played an important role in transforming Ukraine into a Russophobic US colony on the doorsteps of Russia.

Venezuela has the most proven oil reserves in the entire world. Saudi Arabia's 298 billion barrels of proven reserves barely beat Venezuela's 304 billion barrels. Both are significantly more than the 69 billion barrels of U.S. proven reserves.

United States government supported efforts to overthrow the government of Venezuela, particularly during the presidencies of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro.

Hugo Chávez was the President of Venezuela from 1999 until his death in 2013. He was succeeded by his Vice President, Nicolás Maduro. Both leaders have been associated with socialist policies and anti-U.S. rhetoric. Over the years, there have been repeated allegations that the U.S. government has sought to undermine or overthrow the Venezuelan government. These allegations have included claims of the U.S. providing support to opposition groups, economic sanctions, and diplomatic pressure.

The most notable incident occurred in April 2002, when a coup briefly removed Chávez from power. He was restored to power within 48 hours. The U.S. government recognized the interim government that took power during the coup, leading to allegations of U.S. involvement or support.

In January 2019, opposition leader Juan Guaidó declared himself interim President of Venezuela, disputing the legitimacy of Nicolás Maduro’s presidency. The U.S. and several other nations recognized Guaidó as the legitimate leader. This move was seen by some as another attempt at a U.S.-backed coup.

Bolivia is rich in lithium reserves and is part of the lithium triangle. Lithium is a finite resource crucial for the production of electric batteries.

Evo Morales, Bolivia’s first Indigenous president, was in power from 2006 to 2019. His presidency was marked by significant economic growth and reductions in poverty. He’s another Latin American president that’s connected with anti-American sentiments and socialist policies. He even offered asylum to NSA whistleblower Edward Snowden.

In October 2019, Morales ran for a fourth term in office. The election results were contested, with the Organization of American States (OAS) declaring that there were irregularities in the vote count. Morales initially agreed to hold new elections, but protests continued to escalate.

On November 10, 2019, the Bolivian military publicly called for Morales to step down. He resigned the same day, denouncing the events as a coup. Morales went into exile, first in Mexico and later in Argentina.

The U.S.’s role in these events is a subject of debate. The U.S. government, under President Donald Trump, was quick to recognize the interim government headed by Jeanine Áñez that took power after Morales’s departure. This led some to argue that the U.S. had supported the coup. Additionally, critics point out that the OAS, which played a key part in questioning the election results, receives a significant portion of its funding from the U.S.

In 2020, a year after Morales was forced out, his political party MAS (Movement Toward Socialism) returned to power in Bolivia with the election of Luis Arce. Morales returned to Bolivia shortly after.

In July 2020, Elon Musk tweeted “We will coup whoever we want! Deal with it” in response to a comment accusing him of engaging in a coup over lithium. Although Musk later clarified that his company gets most of its lithium from Australia, the tweet stirred controversy and speculation about Tesla’s potential benefit from a more business-friendly government in Bolivia.

Pakistan, a country with a long history as a US ally, has seen its Prime Minister Imran Khan ousted through a no-confidence vote in parliament. Khan claims that this is a US-backed regime change. He accused Donald Lu, a senior U.S. State Department official, of being involved in this purported plot.

Interestingly, video footage showed Lu admitting to contacting Pakistani officials after Pakistan abstained from a vote on Russian aggression in Ukraine.

Pakistan Cypher Exposes U.S. Pressure to Remove Imran Khan.

Motivations for the US to oust Khan include: his opposition to the war on terror, support for the Palestinians, efforts to improve relations with Russia and China, and criticism of US foreign policy.

New evidence has come to light showing that the recent 'Gen Z' color revolution, also known as the Student Protests, which happened in Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, has received funding and training from the notorious National Endowment for Democracy (NED) organization.

Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina stepped down on late 2024 following violent protests against the government job quota system. Under Hasina's leadership of the secular Awami League (AL), Bangladesh continued to collaborate with Russia, similar to other Global South countries, despite Western sanctions.

Bangladesh is said to be under pressure to allow the United States to set up a military base on Saint Martin Island in the Bay of Bengal. This proposal has generated significant geopolitical debate, as it could shift the regional power dynamics and potentially escalate the military rivalry between India and China, affecting their overall relations. Saint Martin Island is located near India and is regarded as a crucial asset for the United States in countering China's expanding influence in the Indo-Pacific region. Its proximity to India could enhance India-U.S. defense ties by providing a strategic position that supports mutual interests.

The protests began in June and July at various universities, including Brac University (BRACU), which is a key participant in projects by the Open Society University Network (OSUN), established by George Soros. BRACU's parent organization, Brac, is one of the largest non-profits globally and has received funding from Soros' Open Society Foundations for a long time.

In August 2022, US Ambassador to Bangladesh Peter Haas called for elections in Bangladesh to be "free, fair, and transparent."

In December 2022, Haas visited the home of Sajedul Islam Sumon, a leader of the opposition Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), following a party rally in Dhaka. Moscow cautioned the US against interfering in Bangladesh's internal matters.

In December 2023, anti-government protests led to traffic disruptions and clashes with the police, with Russian Foreign Ministry spokesperson Maria Zakharova accusing US diplomats of inciting the unrest.

After the AL's victory in the January 2024 election, the US criticized the election process as not being free or fair, while India, China, and Russia extended their congratulations to Hasina and the AL.

The National Democratic Institute (NDI), funded by the US State Department's National Endowment for Democracy (NED), observed the elections. The NED, referred to as the "second CIA," is active in Bangladesh and allegedly funds the anti-government outlet Netra News, which labeled Hasina as an "authoritarian" leader and called for her resignation.

In late 2024, protests turned violent, and Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina had to resign and flee the country.

Muhammad Yunus, currently leading the interim government, has had a history of support from the United States. He was a Fulbright scholar sponsored by the U.S. State Department and has received various honors from the U.S. government, in addition to being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. According to Wikileaks, he reportedly sought U.S. intervention in Bangladeshi politics on his behalf.

Warren Delano was the grandfather of Franklin Roosevelt. Delano was employed by Russell & Co., which was the largest Chinese trading company during his time. In 1824, John P. Cushing sold Perkins & Co. to Russell & Co. Delano took advantage of the UK's subsequent opium ban by charging tolls and assisting with the transportation of opium, which led to significant profits and elevated him to the second-highest position at Russell & Co. He was dubbed as the 'American Opium king of China'. In 1839, he facilitated the first military trade between the US and China by successfully selling a 900-ton British warship to Lin Zexu during the Opium War. So the family made profits by exploiting both the British and the Chinese.

William Jardine and James Matheson are the founders of Jardine Matheson Holdings Limited, also known as Jardines. After Hong Kong was ceded to the British under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the company established its headquarters in Hong Kong and quickly expanded its operations by illegally smuggling opium from British-controlled India into China. The company has earned a reputation as the "most successful opium smuggling company in the world." To date, this British multinational conglomerate is based in Hong Kong, and the majority of its business interests are in Asia.

Dent & Co. (also known as Dent's) was among the most affluent British merchant firms that operated in China. They were a fierce competitor of Jardine, Matheson & Co., and Russell & Co.

George Baring founded the company in 1809. Thomas Dent joined it in 1820 and also brought in Robert Hugh Inglis, who had connections with the East India Company. The company changed its name to "Dent & Co." in 1824, and a relation of Thomas, Lancelot Dent, joined the firm in 1827. One of the first triggers of the First Opium War began with Lin Zexu's order for the arrest of Lancelot Dent in 1839, as Dent refused to surrender his opium store.

The Sassoon family was a prominent Jewish family of Iraqi origin who established businesses in India, China, and England during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The family's fortune was built on the opium trade, and they became one of the wealthiest families in the world. In fact, they were called the "Rothschilds of the East."

The family's fortune originated when they moved to India. David Sassoon founded the David S. Sassoon company in Bombay and filled it with people from Baghdad to staff various branches of the business across India, Burma, Malaya, and East Asia. He then established the family's dominant position in the Sino-Indian opium trade and expanded businesses in China and Hong Kong. His success extended to England, and he is known for building Sassoon House in Shanghai, which is now a landmark.

John Murray Forbes was another notable person associated with Russell & Co. Despite his involvement in the opium trade, Forbes was a known philanthropist and was instrumental in the establishment of the Massachusetts General Hospital and Manhattan's Hospital for Special Surgery, as well as the Perkins Institution for the Blind. Moreover, in the 1850s, he held the presidency of both the Michigan Central Railroad and the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad.

T. H. Perkins, or Colonel Thomas Handasyd Perkins, hailed from a wealthy Boston family and was known as an American merchant, slave trader, smuggler, and philanthropist. Using bequests from his grandfather and father-in-law, he accumulated a significant fortune. In his youth, Perkins traded slaves in Saint-Domingue and worked as a maritime fur trader, dealing in furs from the American Northwest that were traded in China. Later, he engaged in smuggling Turkish opium into China. His nephew, John Perkins Cushing, was also involved in Perkins' China business for three decades.

The Astor family, or the Astor dynasty, was a family that held a position of prominence in American society during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The family's initial wealth was established by John Jacob Astor through the fur trade. But it was his grandson, John Jacob Astor IV, who went on to invest in the opium trade by participating in the American China Development Company and amassed a fortune through smuggling opium into China. He was also a real estate tycoon, investing in real estate in and around New York City. He was the first noteworthy member of the Astor family and the first multi-millionaire in the United States.

The Cabot family was another prominent American family involved in the opium trade in China. The founder of the family, Samuel Cabot Jr., was a Boston merchant who made a fortune through opium smuggling. Samuel Cabot Jr. married Elizabeth Perkins, a daughter of the Perkins family, and were parents to seven sons. One of their sons, Samuel Cabot III, continued the family business and expanded it into the shipping industry, building a fleet of ships that transported opium to China.

Samuel Russell, an American entrepreneur and trader, established Russell & Company, which became the most significant and largest American trading house in China from 1842 until its dissolution in 1891. After arriving in Canton, China, in 1819, Russell conducted trade on behalf of the Providence-based firm, Edward Carrington & Company, dealing in various goods such as opium. The substantial profits he earned enabled him to establish Russell & Company in Canton in 1824, which mainly traded in silks, teas, and opium. The company flourished, and by 1842, it had risen to become the most significant American trading house in China.

William Shepard Wetmore was an American philanthropist and businessman involved in trade with China. He traveled to Canton in 1833 and took over a partnership with Dunn & Company. He later formed a new merchant house, Wetmore & Company, with a junior partner. Wetmore's records from 1834 to 1839 show that the main products traded by the company were tea, tea papers, silks, and spices, with smaller shipments of wine, port, opium, hemp, pearl buttons, copper, and coffee.

Baring Brothers was a leading British banking and merchant firm during the 18th and 19th centuries. The firm was established in 1762 by Francis Baring and quickly became one of the most influential banking houses in London. The firm played a significant role in financing the opium trade between India and China.

Hugh Hamilton Lindsay was the son of Hon. Hugh Lindsay, a director of the East India Company which produced revenues from monopoly opium sales for British India. Lindsay had a keen interest in China and was one of the first Britons to visit Shanghai. In 1820, he began his career in China as a supercargo for the East India Company and later became the company's Secretary in Canton.

In 1832, Lindsay led a covert exploration of Chinese ports along with Lutheran missionary Karl Gützlaff, visiting Amoy, Fuzhou, Ningbo, Shanghai, and Shandong. He was a supporter of the war against Qing China to promote business interests. Lindsay was the founder of Lindsay and Company of Hong Kong, a banking and shipping company.

The Rosetta Stone is an ancient Egyptian artefact with inscriptions in various languages and scripts. The upper and middle texts are in Ancient Egyptian, written in hieroglyphic and Demotic scripts, respectively, while the lower text is in Ancient Greek. Discovered near the town of Rosetta (Rashid), about 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Alexandria, the stone is irregularly shaped and made of black granite, measuring 3 feet 9 inches (114 cm) in length and 2 feet 4.5 inches (72 cm) in width.

In August 1799, a Frenchman named Bouchard discovered it. Following the French surrender of Egypt in 1801, the Rosetta Stone came into the possession of the British and is now housed in the British Museum in London.

The Kohinoor diamond, weighing 105.6 carats, is one of the largest cut diamonds worldwide. Its first verifiable historical record appears in Muhammad Kazim Marvi's history of the 1740s invasion of Northern India by Nader Shah. Marvi writes that Nader Shah looted the Kohinoor, among many other precious stones, from the Mughal Peacock Throne in Delhi. The diamond then exchanged hands between different empires in South and West Asia until it was given to Queen Victoria after the annexation of Punjab by the British East India Company in 1849.

Upon its arrival in the UK, the Kohinoor diamond has exclusively been worn by female members of the British royal family. Queen Victoria adorned the stone in both a brooch and a circlet. Following her death in 1901, it was set in the Crown of Queen Alexandra. The diamond was then transferred to the Crown of Queen Mary in 1911 and later to the Crown of Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother, in 1937 for her coronation. Presently, the Kohinoor diamond is on public exhibit in the Jewel House at the Tower of London.

The Maqdala treasures are valuable artefacts, including a gold crown from the 18th century that was seized by the British Army in 1868. The British Museum holds roughly 80 items from Maqdala, formerly called Amba Mariam. The collections include ceremonial crosses, chalices, processional umbrella tops, weapons, textiles, jewellery, archaeological material and tabots - sacred objects within the Ethiopian Orthodox tradition. Objects from Maqdala are featured in both permanent and temporary displays at the Museum's galleries.

The Bronze Head of Queen Idia is believed to be a commemorative bronze sculpture from medieval Benin that likely portrays Idia, the mother of Oba Esigie. The sculpture depicts a young woman from the Benin court wearing a high-pointed ukpe-okhue crown made of lattice-shaped red coral beads. It was created at the Benin court in the early 16th century using the lost wax casting technique. After the Benin Expedition of 1897-1900, many works of art from Benin were sold in the European art market. There are four known cast bronze heads of Queen Idia, all of which are now housed in the British Museum in London.

The Akan Drum, originating from West Africa, was uncovered in the Colony of Virginia in North America and is now considered the British Museum's oldest surviving African-American artefact, as well as potentially the oldest surviving drum of its kind. The drum serves as a reminder of the transatlantic slave trade that involved all three continents and transported approximately twelve million individuals across the Atlantic Ocean. Exhibited in Room 26, the North American gallery of the British Museum, the drum is crafted from two types of sub-Saharan African wood: Baphia and Cordia africana.

The Amaravati Marbles are a collection of 120 sculptures and inscriptions housed in the British Museum, originating from the Amaravati Stupa located in Amaravathi, Guntur in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. These sculptures are primarily in relief, with many of them depicting scenes from the Jataka tales, a body of literature that narrates the past lives of Buddha. The collection is sometimes referred to as the Elliot Marbles due to their association with Sir Walter Elliot, who had them transported from the site to Madras in the 1840s. The British Museum acquired the Amaravati Marbles in the 1880s.

The collection of sculptures and plaques known as the 'Benin Bronzes' is a magnificent array of brass and bronze artworks. These include intricately designed cast plaques, commemorative heads, animal and human figures, royal regalia, and personal ornaments, all of which originated from the West African Kingdom of Benin, now a part of Nigeria. A significant number of the sculptures in the collection can be traced back to the 13th century, while a substantial portion of the collection is from the 15th and 16th centuries. However, from 1897 to 1960, Benin City was under British colonial rule. During this time, over 200 of these sculptures were looted by the British expedition and have since been held in British museums.

The Great Star of Africa, also known as the Cullinan Diamond, is a historic diamond that was discovered in 1905 in South Africa. It is the largest diamond ever found, weighing 3,106.75 carats. The diamond was named after Sir Thomas Cullinan, who owned the Premier mine where it was found. The Great Star of Africa was eventually cut into several smaller stones, the largest of which is the Cullinan I, a pear-shaped diamond weighing 530.2 carats. It is part of the British Crown Jewels and is set in the Sovereign's Sceptre with a Cross. The other stones cut from the original Cullinan Diamond are also highly prized and have been used in various royal and ceremonial jewellery.

The Bronze Head of Ife, a free-standing bronze sculpture created between 1200 and 1400 CE using the lost wax technique, was discovered in 1938 at Wunmonije Compound in Ife, Nigeria. It was found along with sixteen other brass and copper heads and the upper half of a brass figure. The elaborate beaded headdress of the sculpture suggests that it may have belonged to an Ooni, the ruler of Ife. The Bronze Head of Ife is now housed at the British Museum.

The Kongo Kingdom in west-central Africa produced some of the most exquisite sculptural works known as Kongo ivories. These ivory sculptures were commissioned by the kingdom's chiefs and kings, who strictly controlled the valuable commodity. They were crafted for personal and courtly use and became highly sought-after as the transatlantic trade expanded, with ivory becoming one of the most valuable African natural resources. Eventually, Kongo ivory carvers began producing works not only for indigenous leaders and elites, but also for Europeans and other foreigners.

The Luzira Head, or Mpanga Head, is a unique terracotta bust of a female figure found in Luzira, Uganda. Its nose is small, while the eyes and mouth are narrow and protruding. The forehead is marked with three cicatrices, and the hair is matted and drapes over both sides of the head. The original excavation revealed the tripod-shaped lower part of the figure, which is also hollow and made of baked clay, mirroring the head's construction. Estimated to be approximately 1000 years old, the sculpture is one of the earliest Sub-Saharan artworks discovered in Africa. The British Museum's ethnographic collection has housed the Luzira Head since 1931.

The Benin ivory mask is a miniature ivory sculpture in the form of a traditional African mask, depicting Idia, the first Iyoba (Queen Mother) of the Benin Empire during the 16th century. The British looted the masks from the palace of the Oba of Benin during the Benin Expedition of 1897. The British Museum in London and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City both possess nearly identical masks, both portraying the Queen Mother in a serene expression, wearing a beaded headdress, a beaded choker around her neck, with scarification on the forehead highlighted by iron inlay, and all framed by the flange of an openwork tiara and collar of symbolic beings, as well as double loops on each side for attachment of the pendant.

The Ndop sculptures were figurative representations of the various kings of the Kuba kingdom. The sculptures typically depict the ruler holding a weapon, specifically an ikul or peace knife, made in the style reserved for the Bushoong, the dominant sub-group of the Kuba, in their left hand. Scholars believe that the tradition of creating "portrait statues" of kings began in the late eighteenth century. The sculptures were first collected by a colonial minister in 1909 in what was then the Belgian Congo, a European colony.

The statue of Sekhemka is an ancient Egyptian artefact that was donated to the Northampton Museum in the 1870s by the Marquess of Northampton. The statue, which dates back to the 5th dynasty and is slightly older than Stonehenge, depicts Sekhemka, the scribe, and his wife, Sitmerit. In 2014, the statue was sold at auction for £15.76 million, breaking the world record for the sale of Ancient Egyptian art. The sale was contentious and raised questions about the museum's ownership and the ethics of selling cultural artefacts.

Tipu Sultan's ring is a historic artefact that belonged to Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in India in the late 18th century. The ring is made of gold, and the raised Devanagari script on it bears the name of the Hindu God Ram. It is believed to have been worn by Tipu Sultan himself, who was known for his military prowess and resistance against British colonialism. The ring was acquired by the British East India Company after Tipu Sultan's defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799.

The ring gained widespread attention in May 2014 when it was auctioned off by the renowned UK auction house Christie's for an unexpected amount of 145,000 pounds, ten times more than the estimated price.

The British Museum houses the Elgin Marbles, which is a collection of Ancient Greek sculptures taken from the Parthenon and other structures from the Acropolis of Athens by agents of Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, during Ottoman Greece and transported to Britain. Most of the sculptures were crafted in the 5th century BCE under the supervision of sculptor and architect Phidias. Between 1801 and 1812, Elgin's representatives removed approximately half of the surviving Parthenon sculptures, as well as sculptures from the Erechtheion, the Temple of Athena Nike, and the Propylaia, and brought them to Britain to create a personal museum.

The British Museum's possession of the marbles has been a source of ongoing international controversy. In 1816, a parliamentary inquiry in the UK concluded that Elgin had obtained the marbles through legal means. He subsequently sold them to the British government that same year, and they have since been under the trusteeship of the British Museum.

Beijing is one of the four oldest cities in China, with a rich history of 3,000 years. It is also one of the most well-preserved ancient cities in the world, with numerous cultural and historical treasures. It has served as the capital for nearly 700 years and the center of power for six ancient dynasties, including the Yuan, Ming, and Qing empires, which were among the largest and strongest in history.

The area around Beijing was home to some of the earliest human beings, as evidenced by prehistoric fossils. In the period from 1918 to 1939, the fossil remains of the Peking man (who lived around 770,000 to 230,000 years ago) and Upper Caveman (who lived around 50,000 years ago) were discovered at Zhoukoudian.

The name “Anhui” comes from the combination of the names of Anqing and Huizhou cities. Anhui was officially established as a province in 1667 during the Kangxi Emperor’s rule in the Qing dynasty. The land has a rich history, with historical sites dating back to the Xia dynasty (2070 BC) to the Warring Kingdoms (475–221 BC). During the Qin dynasty, the area was divided into prefectures such as Jiujiang, Zhang, Tang, and Sishui.

Before 1949, Anhui was one of China’s poorest and least developed regions. Since then, efforts have been made to tap into its economic and human resources.

Chongqing, with a metropolitan area as large as Austria, is considered one of the four most important cities as it serves as a vehicle for spreading industrialization across China’s underdeveloped western frontier. Chongqing was part of Sichuan Province until 1997, but with the entire province totaling 100 million people, it was divided up to make governance easier. However, culturally and historically, it’s basically identical to Sichuan. It’s the financial capital of the upper Yangtze and once served as the nation’s provincial wartime Capital during World War II.

Fujian is one of the most linguistically and culturally diverse Chinese provinces, with dialects like China Min, Hokkien, Hakka, Fujianese, and Fuzhou. It is said that every 10 kilometers you drive in this area, the language, as well as the local customs and culture, completely change. This is owed to the waves of migrations to the province. Its mountainous landscape acts as containment zones for each culture besides being a destination for internal migrants over the centuries. Fujianese are famous for being migrants themselves; they make up the majority of the Southeast Asian Chinese diaspora whether they ethnically identify as   Hakka, Hokkien, or the practically innumerable other groups from Fujian. When the Qing conquered Taiwan from the Ming loyalists in 1683, Fujian in Taiwan became one province, so Taiwan was predominantly peopled by Hokkien immigrants from Southern Fujian. To this day, the Taiwanese iteration of traditional Chinese culture is a  reflection of this particular region’s customs.

This sparsely populated province in Northwest China has had a great impact on the development of Chinese history. It’s the origin point for the state of Qin, which conquered all of China and unified it as a single entity in 221 BC. What Gansu is most famous for, though, is the Gansu Corridor, a traversable land bridge flanked by inhospitable terrain, connecting the Chinese historical heartlands with the wider world and beyond. It’s through this stretch of land that the Silk Road begins and connects with the West. It’s the way by which Buddhist missionaries from the Kushan Empire came to spread their teachings throughout China. It’s also the way Islam would spread from Central Asia.

Guangdong is China’s most populated province, with a total of 126 million people. It’s also one of the very few provinces that have their own television and radio stations operated in their own language. This language, known as Cantonese, is so prolific that at the turn of the 20th century, Cantonese was considered to become China’s lingua Franca over Mandarin. As a southern Coastal Province, Guangdong is over-represented in the Chinese immigrant population abroad, particularly in the West. The Cantonese-speaking people are the face of China to the Western world. In the West, when you suggest getting Chinese food, you usually mean getting Guangdong cuisine. Similarly, if you watch a Chinese movie, especially a Kung Fu film, it’s likely to be in Cantonese. Guangdong has great ties to the outside world through culture, immigration, and trade, with Hong  Kong serving as the portal between China and the West.

Long regarded as the Wild Frontier of  Chinese civilization, Guanxi’s name literally means western expanse. It refers to the vast territory of untamed landscape, which was first incorporated into the empire in 214 BC by Qin Dynasty General Zhao Tuo. When the Qin dynasty fell to the Han less than 20 years later, Jiao Tuo announced himself emperor and established his own kingdom called Nanyue, which encompassed the kingdom of barbarians known as the Yue people. This empire would stretch into Vietnam and play a key role in spreading Chinese culture into Indo-China with the name of Vietnam, literally meaning Nanyue.

The indigenous inhabitants of Guizhou, the Miao, have probably rebelled against Han Chinese rule more times than any other minority group in China. Since their incorporation into the state of Shu in the 10th Century BC, what has made the Miao difficult to suppress is their geographical location. Guizhou sits atop  the Yunnan Guizhou Plateau, separated from the Chinese heartland by 1100 meters of altitude and amongst the thick vegetation. The Han migration into Guizhou has been one that has come slowly and in relative bursts throughout history during the 8th and 9th centuries AD. Tang soldiers moved into Guizhou and married indigenous women, with their future offspring being referred to as old Chinese. Many Han that live in Guizhou in the present can trace their lineage back to these old Chinese and speak with an archaic accent that has been preserved since the time of the Tang.

Since Mao’s passing through Guizhou during the Long March in 1934, the province has gained increased significance in more recent times. Mao referred to Guizhou as a “gorilla’s paradise,” and when the Communist party came to power, there was a focus on developing the province in case of a war with either the US or the Soviet Union.

Sometimes jokingly referred to as the Hawaii of China, Hainan has been the southernmost territory of China since its incorporation into Han rule 2 000 years ago. Being so remote, it was known as a place to exile political prisoners. With China being a historical land power and all its energy focused on the heartland of the Middle Kingdom, Hainan served practically no strategic interest and was scarcely ever coveted by foreign powers.  All this changed, however, when China was forced to face the sea when the westerners staked their claim to their Coastline in the 19th century. Since then, up until the present day, Hainan has been used to project power into the sea as it serves as China’s only major island possession. During Deng Xiaoping’s economic reform program, he made the island into the country’s largest special economic zone. Again in 2020, it was announced that the island would become a free trade port. Unlike throughout most of its neglected history, Hainan now serves a critical geostrategic importance to China as it’s China’s way of projecting itself into the South China sea, and thus Hainan has China’s largest naval base. Being the only part of China that is distinctly part of Southeast Asia, it’s through Hainan that China joins the geostrategic interests of the southeast Asia region.

As passed down by tradition, it is said that the serpentine God Fuxi lived in present-day Xingtai city, Hebei province, and it’s here where she supposedly created Humanity. Hebei occupies a portion of the Chinese cradle of civilization that exists in and around the Yellow River. With its name literally translating ‘to the north of the river,’ Hebei has five UNESCO world heritage sites. The first is the most famous and well-preserved part of the Great Wall of China, built by the Ming in the 14th century to keep the Mongols out. The second is the ancient Grand Canal, a 1700-kilometer-long man-made Canal built in the Sui Dynasty in 581 AD to link the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. The third is the Chengdu Mountain Resort which was completed in 1792 after  89 years of construction. It’s a vast complex of palaces, and administrative and ceremonial buildings, all surrounded by lakes and forests. This was supposed to serve as the forbidden palace when the Royals would go on their summer vacation. The final two are the East and West Qing Imperial tombs that house the bodies of 237 Qing Royals.

Heilongjiang is both China’s most northern  Province and most eastern province. The name Heilongjiang is derived from the name of the river of the same name, the Heilong River, which is translated as the Black Dragon River. The river is more or less an exact boundary demarcating the Chinese on the south side from the Russians on the North side. Heilongjiang is most known for being the Homeplace of the Manchu people who conquered China and established the Qing Dynasty. For most of the Qing’s rule, Manchuria was barred from Han immigrants, with few exceptions. However, towards the end of their Dynasty, Han Chinese from the Shandong Peninsula immigrated in waves to the province during the century of chaos that was the 19th century, and now the Hans are the super majority in the area.

Henan boasts a rich history as the birthplace of Han Chinese civilization, with over 3,200 years of recorded history. It served as China’s cultural, economic, and political hub until about 1,000 years ago. Its fertile plains and central location in the country were the source of its economic prosperity. However, Henan’s central location in China has led to it being affected by many of the country’s major wars. Also, over the years, the Yellow River has caused damage to the area through frequent flooding.

Before the Kangxi emperor’s reign in the Qing dynasty, Hubei and its neighbour Hunan were one province called Huguang. During the Qing dynasty, they were split into two separate provinces, Hubei (meaning “North of the Lake”) and Hunan (“South of the Lake”), based on their location relative to Dongting Lake. During the Spring and Autumn period, the area that is now Hubei was part of the strong State of Chu.

Currently, Hubei plays a significant role in economic development in China. The building of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River near Yichang, which started in 1993, represents the shift towards economic growth in the province.

Hunan, like Hubei, was part of the state of Chu and shares its ancient origins. Although China didn’t have universities, they did have academies, making Hunan a centre of learning. One of the most prestigious academies was the Yuelu academy, founded in 960 AD. This makes it one of the oldest institutions of higher learning that is still in use. Hunan is also known as the cradle of China’s Revolution. This was the place where the Communists began their uprising. After a famine that had killed 2 million Hunanese, an uprising took place led by a local communist organizer Mao Zedong, who would take to the Hunan Countryside to wage a Guerrilla war against nationalists.

Inner Mongolia is an autonomous region within China and shares a large part of China’s border with Mongolia. Approximately 40% of Mongolia’s territory lies within China’s borders. The autonomous region of Inner Mongolia was formed in 1947, combining the former provinces of Suiyuan, Chahar, Rehe, Liaobei, and Xing’an, as well as the northern parts of Gansu and Ningxia.

When considering Mongolian history, the Mongolian empire became unstable after the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 due to internal conflict and competition for power among the Golden Horde princes. The vast size of the empire made it difficult to maintain control. The passing of the last Golden Horde khan in 1636 and the rise of the Qing Dynasty in 1644 made southern Mongolia (inner Mongolia) vulnerable to occupation.

Jiangsu is a model of economic success, having the highest GDP per capita and a GDP only second to the much more populated Guangdong Province. This area, historically known as the state of Wu, has, in fact, been a major source of prosperity since ancient times, with cities like Wuxi being a primary source of silk, textiles, and rice.

When the Northern barbarians occupied all of North China in the 4th century, forcing the heartland of China to move South, the ruling Dynasty Jin, moved their capital to the city called Jianye, now known as Nanjing, enshrining the city as a historic capital for successive dynasties to come. The growing influence of the South was further multiplied by the building of the Grand Canal in 581 AD by the Sui Dynasty, connecting the economic zones of the Yellow River to the Yangtze. Jiangsu, sitting amidst the Yangtze River Side of the canal, became enormously wealthy from the trade. This area became the birthplace of China’s wealthy Mercantile class, with cities like Suzhou being famed for their new money opulence.

Jiangxi is defined by the river Gan, a not-too-well-known river outside of China. The Gan river is the historical link between South China and South South China as in Guangdong or what we would consider South China today. Without such a connection, the peopling of contemporary Southern China wouldn’t have been possible as Jiangxi is a  typically mountainous and inaccessible region with the exception of its River Corridor. The culture that spread forth from this area was known as the Gan, with the Gan language having over 48 million speakers.

Jilin in Manchu means ‘on the river’, referring to the song Hua River. Jilin is just one of those four provinces that make up the Antiquated region of Manchuria or, as it’s known in Chinese, Dongbei. This North Eastern region of China is not native to the Han, but was the wild west of Barbarian nomadic. During the 19th century, when the area of Primorsky Krai was ceded to the Russians, the Manchus opened up Jillin to Han migration to provide a buffer between expansionists Russia and the  Manchu Heartland. Like with Heilongjiang, the once majority Manchu populous was mostly replaced by the  Han a century later. Also featured in Jilin are  Koreans, who make up five% of its population. They even have their own prefecture called the Yanbian, a Korean autonomous prefecture that sits west of the Tunmen River bordering North Korea.

Liaoning is China’s northernmost Coastal Province. Its Port City of Dalia is a significant shipping and logistical hub for East Asia as it’s a Midway port for Japan and Northern China. The peninsula was of great interest to the Imperial powers of the 19th century. The geostrategic importance of this city led to the Russo-Japanese war, where both parties sought to be the hegemon of this important region with Dalian at its Center. The Russians wanted Dalian to use it as a warm water port, and the Japanese wanted to use it as a springboard to colonize Manchuria. This strategic importance carries over to contemporary times.

Dalian is home to one of the largest military and Naval bases in Asia as the Liaoning peninsula, as well as the Shandong Peninsula, are the naval gateways to China’s capital.

Ningxia is an autonomous region in northwest China. It was once a province but was merged with Gansu in 1954. In 1958, it was separated from Gansu and established as an autonomous region for the Hui people, who make up 20% of China’s Hui population.

Ningxia has a long and diverse history, having been incorporated into various dynasties and being a frequent target of war and incursions by non-Chinese tribes. It was part of the Qin dynasty as the Beidi Commandery in the 3rd century BC and later became the center of the Western Xia dynasty established by the Tangut people in the 11th century. Jews also lived in the area, and after being conquered by Genghis Khan in the early 13th century, Ningxia was also populated by Muslim immigrants from Central Asia. By the late 17th century, Ningxia had become a major center for weaving, producing early Chinese carpets.

Qinghai is the second largest region in China, but it’s sparsely populated owing to its inhospitable terrain and climate. Only a few people are able to tolerate the high altitude that leads to harsh winters and ferocious winds in the desert landscape that cause sandstorms.

The region is traditionally inhabited by nomadic tribes of Tibetans and Mongols, who have been the predominant cultural influence in the region. Qinghai has a special symbolic and strategic influence as the life giver of Asia. It’s the source of the three Great Rivers: yellow river, Yangtze, and  Mekong river, which in total support over 800 million people with water.

Shaanxi, considered one of the origins of Chinese civilization, is home to the famous terracotta warriors who reside in the great ancient capital of Xi’an, formerly known as Changan. Changan was claimed as the capital by most of the dynasties that are considered to be in the golden age, the Zhou Han and the Tang among them. One could argue that much of its prosperity is derived from its position as the endpoint for the Silk Road, where wealth was accumulated over many generations. Shaanxi is also home to the supposed resting place of the first emperor of China, the legendary yellow emperor. According to legend, he came to the site and ascended into heaven, leaving only his clothes behind.

Although China doesn’t appear like a place of significant religious importance, there are pockets within the country that are overrepresented in the dissemination of religious and philosophical knowledge, and the key among these places is Shandong. Shandong is a pivotal religious center for all  three major religions Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism.

The city of Qufu is the birthplace of Confucius, attracting pilgrims and tourists since ancient times to pay their respects. It was also the site of pilgrimage for successive emperors since Han times, who would often visit after ascending to the throne, often as a way to legitimize their rule by paying homage to the forefather of wise leadership. Mount Tai is also located in Shandong. It’s a site with perhaps the longest-running history of continuous religious worship in the world, starting three thousand years ago.

In modern times,  Shandong rapidly grew to have the third largest GDP out of all the provinces in China due to the significance of a strategically positioned peninsula and its closeness to the capital.

Shanxi is a fairly poor province in current times and is primarily known for its large-scale coal mining; however, in pre-modern times, Shanxi merchants had a reputation for great wealth and were known to conduct commerce even in the nether regions over the Great Wall. Shanxi merchants had an established monopoly on finance for centuries prior to the arrival of the British banks. At the time, they used the system of commercial paper to execute money transfers, deposits, and loans for people using their network of Shanxi merchants across China. Shanxi is also known for having 70 % of China’s surviving historical buildings built during or before the Song Dynasty.

Although most people misinterpret the name Sichuan as “four rivers,” this misinterpretation is an apt description of the province and its prosperity. The rivers and their basins in the region make the soil so fertile that it is able to sustain 100  million people. Sichuan is a far-flung region from the central plains heartland of China, but since the Qin’s subjugation of the province in 316 BC, irrigation systems were implemented to further develop agricultural production, placing it on par with the agriculture of the Yellow River Valley region. Sichuan is generally considered to have the best food in China, known for its wildly spicy food.

Geographically, Sichuan is split between the  Han-populated lowlands of the Sichuan Basin and the Sichuan-controlled area of the Tibetan Plateau, a sparsely populated region inhabited mostly by Tibetans. Sichuan is also home to the world’s oldest ongoing school, the ShiShi School, founded in 141 BC during the time of the Han.

Since China’s pivot to the ocean over the past two centuries, some cities have had great geostrategic importance placed on them. Tianjin is one of these cities. If the Liaoning Peninsula serves as the gate to the capital of Beijing, then Tianjin is the door. This is why this city is considered one of the four most important cities in current-day China. Throughout Beijing’s history, the threat of invasion came from the other side of the Great Wall in the form of horseback riding barbarians galloping across the untamed countryside, but in the 19th and 20th centuries, this threat came through the sea, and the staging ground for such attacks was from Tianjin. The first time this happened was when British and French troops marched inland from Tianjin and burnt down the Imperial Summer Palace in 1860. Consequently, there was a focus on strengthening Tianjin both militarily and economically to act as a buffer to Beijing due to the presence of Westerners in the city during the 19th century. Therefore, Tianjin became a place for modern military instruction with the establishment of the Tianjin Military Academy in 1885. Instructed by German officers, the academy would help bring China up to scratch on Modern Warfare and would become the benchmark for military academies in China.

Yunnan is home to 56 different ethnic groups. This includes Han, Hui, Mongols, Manchus, and Tibetans, but most of these 56  ethnic groups are exclusively in South China and have lived there since time immemorial. The Burmese Empire to the South and Imperial China to the north have been comfortably separated from each other by rugged mountain terrain, rivers, and densely packed rainforests, allowing inhabitants to remain mostly undisturbed. The majority of Yunnan’s territory is run by what are called autonomous prefectures.

Zhejiang comprises the heartland of what is known as the Yangtze River delta and has been the richest province since ancient times. Like its sister province Jiangsu, Zhejiang has reaped the windfall of the Yangtze River trade route as well as having access to the Grand Canal to ship goods north. Zhejiang came into prominence for its wealth during the era of the Three Kingdoms, where the kingdom of Wu was so resource abundant compared to its other rival kingdoms. It was at this time that China saw its first large-scale naval fleets used for river battles, a feat only made possible by the prosperity of Zhejiang. Zhejiang’s wealth accumulated over the centuries, and the city of Hangzhou came to rival Nanjing in time. It was such a wealthy city that  Marco Polo wrote of the city as greater than any in the world. This was also confirmed by Ibn Battuta’s writing.

Xinjiang is an autonomous region within the People’s Republic of China, located in the northwest of the country where Central Asia and East Asia converge. It is the largest province-level division in China.

The name Xinjiang is simply the current iteration of a land that has been changing hands by empires and peoples for thousands of years. Xinjiang’s history is extremely complex and involves one group of people displacing another, century after century for thousands of years. The Han Dynasty first conquered the area known as Xinjiang in 87 BC from the Xiongnu, a proto-Mongolic people who had been ravaging Northern Chinese territory since ancient times. Prior to this, the Xiongnu themselves were the ones who conquered Xinjiang from another people, the Indo-European Tocharians.

The Tibet Autonomous Region is a region located in western China that was once ruled by the Tibetan people. Tibet has a rich history dating back to the 6th century AD, and it has played a significant role in Chinese history and culture.

Archaeological evidence confirms that this region has been inhabited since at least 10,000 B.C., when nomadic hunter-gatherers began crossing into what is now present-day Tibet from East Asia via 4 main paths: from south India via Nepal or Burma; from India's arid Rajasthan; from China across the high Tibetan plateau; and via Kazakhstan - Uzbekistan ~ Tajikistan. As these nomads spread out they developed their own distinct language, culture and religion – Buddhism – which solidified over time to become an official part of Tibetan life by at least 600A.D.

Tibet was given autonomous remote status in 1950 with the establishment of People's Republic of China.

Shanghai’s popularity is a relatively recent phenomenon in history. Before becoming its own municipality, Shanghai was in the shadow of other prosperous great cities in Jiangsu, like Suzhou or Nanjing. It was propelled into riches by China’s shift from the world of rivers to the world of oceans. This is a stark contrast to Shanghai’s humble beginnings as a fishing village. During the 16th century, the simple building of a wall around the village greatly increased its standing as Japanese pirates plundered the coast. With its safety secured, the next big step came a century later when Emperor Kangxi reversed the long-held  Ming-era policy of banning ocean-going vessels. As a safe ocean port, business was brought to Shanghai at a time when more and more goods were being moved to the coast for trade with foreigners. When the British won the first Opium War, the conditions of surrender forced the Qing to open the city to unlimited free trade. Prior to this, trade with foreigners was made through the Canton system, whereby all trade was made at the  Port of Canton. The ending of this policy was an economic disaster for the Qing but a massive boon for cities like Shanghai.